Foreign Policy of China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Foreign Policy of China - Essay Example China's total fertility rate is 1.7, which means that, on average, each woman gives birth to 1.7 children throughout her life, nonetheless, China's population is expected to grow over the next few decades.4 (PGR) This can be attributed to immigration and a decrease in both infant mortality and death rate as national health standards improve. By the late 2010s, China's population is expected to reach 1.4 billion. Around 2030, its population is anticipated to peak and then slowly start dropping. However, one of the demographic consequences of the "one child" policy has been that China is now one of the most rapidly aging countries in the world. 5 Ethnic and religious groups China has numerous ethnic groups (56) as constituents of its population. (Appendix ). The Han Chinese is the most numerous. Many of the ethnic minorities have their own culture and language, but many are becoming more like the Han who dominates the whole of China except Tibet and Xianjiang where the Han is still a minority. In the absence of an 'equal opportunity law', one is free to advertise for a preferred ethnic group for employment. However, most government bodies are required to employ at least one member of an ethnic minority. China was established in 1949 as an officially atheist state, and organized religion was banned and religious belief and practice were discouraged. During the Cultural Revolution, religion was condemned as feudalistic and thousands of religious buildings were looted and destroyed. The 1978 the Chinese Constitution reversed the atheist stance of the government and guaranteed freedom of religion. Many Chinese actually continue to practice a wide variety of religions. One source gives about 100 million religious worshippers in China: Buddhists 72%;... Trade has been growing rapidly during the reform period. In 1952 exports and imports were each running at a miserable US$1 billion. By 1970 they were just over double that, though world trade had expanded many times since 1952. The limited opening up that occurred in the late Mao period brought exports and imports each to about US$7.5billion, only slightly better. Then under Deng Xiaoping, two-way trade shot up: from less than US$15billion in 1975, it grew to $38billion in 1980, nearly $70billion in 1985, and $115billion by 1990. The rapid growth continued in the 1990s, especially after Deng's southern tour in January 1992, and by 1999 two-way trade was worth US$360bn. Imports were balanced with exports when the two were too small to be worth worrying about, then in the 1980s imports exceed exports, and in most years in the 1990s there was a substantial trade surplus. China's foreign trade figures were US $1150 billion in 2004, more than double that of 2001. At the end of 2004, China became the world's third largest trading nation behind the United States and Germany. China’s trade surplus has been positive over many years. In 2005, her exports were valued at $762.0 billion and imports at $ 660.12 billion, giving a BOT surplus of US$ 102. China's principal trading partners are US, Japan, Germany, Singapore, South Korea, Russia, and Australia. With the US, China had a trade surplus of $170 billion in 2004, more than double of the 1999 figure. China has become an integral part of the world’s trading system.

Facts Regarding The Moon And The Illusion Psychology Essay

Facts Regarding The Moon And The Illusion Psychology Essay 1. Introduction The moon rises in the east and settles in the west, following a trajectory route very similar to that of figure 2a. However, during this trajectory the appearance of the moon observed larger on the horizon compared to when it is in its elevated position in the sky is known as the moon illusion for e.g. ( Kaufman et al 1962, 2000, 2006 Reed Kuprinski 2009, Coren Aks 1990, Weizman Cohen 2003, Toskovich 2009, Nanavati 2009), see figure 1ab. This illusion is not only denoted to the moon, it can also be observed by other celestial constellations such as the sun and the stars (Ross and Plug, pg 1-2 2002) (Wade pg 377 2000). It has been found in some cases that the size of the horizon moon appeared almost 1-2 times the diameter of the elevated moon Kaufman and Rock (1962) Ross and Plug (1994). This experience persists even when one is familiar it is an illusion Weizman and Cohen (2003) and has been observed for many centuries, with Aristotle (384-322BC) making the first clear scientific account Ross and Plug, pg 1-2 (2002) Wade pg 377 (2000). However there have been many suggested theories from physics to physiology and now finally psychology as to why this illusion is experienced Wade pg377 (2000), but none has been accepted as the correct answer. The main conflicting issues involve contradictions as to whether it is a linear or angular illusion, thus a model which accounts for both linear and angular illusions providing a common unified explanation is required. Elevated Moon/ Zenith moon Horizon Moon 1a 1b Figure 1a http://facstaff.uww.edu/mccreadd/ and 1b http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/3d/loony.htm (Ken Amis) what the actual illusion looks like in its two comparative positions and an illustration of what the names horizon and elevated moons infer to within this text. 2. Facts regarding the moon and the illusion This is regarded as an illusion because the increase in perception of size occurs even though the visual angle (V) subtended on the eye remains the same regardless of the trajectory position of the moon, i.e. whether the moon is on the horizon or in its elevated position-see figure 2 (For e.g. C.Reed and E. Kuprinski 2009, Kaufman et al 2000). Physically if the angular size changes then a subsequent change of the retinal image size would occur, but it remains constant and hence is regarded as a perceptual phenomenon. The value of this angle has long been accepted as a fairly constant value of 0.52 degrees regardless of elevation For e.g. (Bears, Conners and Paradiso, pg 288,3rd edition, 2006, R Casati, 2003, Ross and Plug, pg 11-14, 2002, Mccready section 1 website). Furthermore evidence can be found in photographs, where many photographers have experienced the illusion, however after photographs become developed the moon image appears small Nanavati (2009). For e.g. Ross and Plug pg 60 (2002) took multiple photos of the sun during different periods of the day and found the size of the sun to be exactly the same during each interval at the different trajectories, similar to figure 2b. Since the camera can only illustrate the linear dimensions of an object this would further enforce the suggestion the illusion is in fact a perceptual phenomenon. Another demonstration involves a simple test called Herings manoeuvre, whereby a subject holds a coin close to their eye at arms length and observes the trajectory of the moon. The result of this will always be that the moon and the coin are the same size no matter what position of trajectory of the moon The Moon Illusion, a literature thesis by Bart Borghuis, (1999), Gregory (2007). Figure 2a http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020130.html Credit and copyright to Shay Stephens. He picture shows the moonrise trajectory over Seattle, USA, with a snapshot taken every 2.5mins. 2a 2b Figure 2 Taken from Mccready section 1 illustrating the size of the moon does not change with the trajectory and nor does the visual angle subtended. The illusion maybe experienced in different areas of the world and the facts about the orbit of the moon around the earth can be used to explain as to why any variances in the earth-moon distance cannot play a role in the illusion. The moon travels in an orbit around the earth completing one full cycle every ~29days (1 month). The mean Earth-Moon distance is fairly constant throughout this period, however there is a degree of variance in the Earth-Moon distance caused by the elliptical shape of the orbit of travel (Nasa website). This variance causes the size of the visual angle of the horizon moon to become 2% smaller than the elevated moon and may only affect only short time viewing i.e. vieiwning the moon during separate hours in the same day Nanavati )2009), but not significant enough to cause the illusion (Mccready section 1). The distance of travel of the orbit has been monitored by NASA since the initial experimentation was carried out using retro-reflector beams/laser used in the Apollo 11 mission to the moon Faller et al (1969, 1970). The moon travels in an orbit of fairly constant mean distance of 384,000km (NASA website) from the earth and hence discounting the physical distance factor creating the illusion. The size (S) is It has been well established the physical size, distance and visual angle do not change (or not by a significant factor), however Aristotle suggested there was a physical cause that created a real magnification on the image size Nanavati (2009). It was thought this was caused by the atmospheric refraction, which had its effects greatest on the light rays on the horizon causing an increase in the moon size The Moon Illusion, a literature thesis by Bart Borghuis (1999), Ross and Plug pg57 (2002) i.e. like a stone under water where it appears to enlarge in size. However this theory was later disregarded as there was no means of measuring the actual horizon enlargement and if any it was deemed neglible, however many writers and investigators supported the idea that it could possibly play some form of secondary role Ross and Plug pg57 (2002), Gregory (2007). 3. Linear distance illusions 3.1 Size distance invariance hypothesis and Emmerts law The SDIH theory proposes the cause of the horizon moon appearing bigger is due to the extended terrain viewed in between the observer and the horizon moon, thus placing it at a perceptually further distance, for e.g. Kaufman (2000, 2006, 2007), Suzuki (2007), Gregory (2007). The SDIH assumes perceived angle (V) like the objective angle (V) is unchanged Reed and Kuprinski (2009) and implies distance is computed primarily by the visual system, while size is later inferred from this. Due to these conditions where perceived angle (V) is kept constant, only perceived distance (D) and size (S) can only change, thus suggesting a linear distance/size illusion and not an angular illusion Higashiyama (2004) Lou (2007). The SDIH can be illustrated by the formula S/D=tan V (apparent size S, apparent distance D and the physical visual angle V) Higashiyama (2006) Kaufman (2006), see figure 3. The SDIH implies the perceived size (S) is directly proportional to perceived distance (D) and this relati onship can be explained using Emmerts law. The conditions of Emmerts law are the perceived size of an object subtending a constant visual angle is directly proportional to its apparent distance Gregory (2007) Philip Servos (2006). Emmerts law in effect is the description of the size distance invariance hypothesis (SDIH) Jones et al (2009) and is one of the more researched theories within this topic. Afterimages are often used as a means to display Emmerts law since they have a constant visual angle always subtended at any distance and therefore a fixed retinal image size at all times disregarding any changes in angular size Lou (2007). Due to this retinal image size being a constant size, means any increase in the afterimage size cannot be due to any angular illusions. Since Emmerts law states size is proportional to apparent distance, then afterimages can be classed as one means of evidence for the SDIH. Figure 3 SDIH diagram taken from section 2 of http://facstaff.uww.edu/mccreadd/sectionII.html Most investigations usually conform to similar methodologies involving a form of magnitude estimation i.e. size or distance, using a reference moon to a variable moon, for e.g. (Holway and Boring 1941, Kaufman 2000, Gordon M Redding 2002, Jones Wilson 2009, Liang Lou 2007 etc). Kaufman (2000) used artificial moons to display the SDIH as a description of the moon illusion. Subjects viewed these artificial moons of constant angular size against a natural sky in horizon and zenith positions. They compared the size and distance of a reference moon to a variable moon. And altered the size of the variable moon using a keypad to achieve a match, see figure 5. In the results the horizon moon was perceived 3.2 times bigger and 4.2 times further away than the zenith. They found as they increased the distance between the reference and variable moon, the moon perceived size increased. Conversely when the distance was reduced the perceived size decreased therefore implying distance determines perceived size. Due to the availability of visual cues, the horizon moon is perceived at a distance D further than that of the zenith, causing a subsequent increase in size S Higashiyama (2006), (2007). Figure 4 illustrates the principles behind the SDIH and apparent distance theor y, where by the black circles in the inner band exemplify the moon straight above the observers head perceived as closer and hence smaller. The horizon moon in this model is perceived further away and hence bigger. Condition 2-Inside band (black circles) showing proposed SDIH condition Condition 1-Outside band (white circles) showing normal condition Horizon moon Observer Elevated moon Figure 4 (Annotated Figure 1 from Kaufman 2000) demonstrating the two conditions. Condition 1 the outer band of circles demonstrate how the moon should be perceived right from the horizon to its elevated state with no illusion. However condition 2 using this model of the illusion is represented in the second inner band of circles, suggesting the moon straight above the observers head is perceived as closer hence smaller and horizon bigger and further. Figure 5 demonstrates the apparatus used in Kaufman 2000s experiment. An IBM Think-Pad flat panel display specifically designed for this experiment was used. Virtual moons were produced as luminous disks against the natural sky. It was conducted on a hilltop on the C.W. Post campus of Long Island University in Brookville, NY. A total of four moons can be seen: one reference and one variable for both the horizon and elevated moon and subjects adjusted the variable moon using the computer accordingly. Kaufman (2006) further investigated using noise signal detection and two alternative forced choices. Luminous discs of constant visual angles were used however viewed across a virtual terrain in this case containing distance cues. Two separate experiments were conducted on size and distance, which suggested a directly proportional relationship between the two as predicted by the SDIH. Figure 6 compares the log size (y axis) versus the log depth (x axis), inferred as distance and found the slope demonstrates a linear slope of ~1. Thus these results suggest as size increases so does distance, once again supporting the SDIH. The fact the perceived size increases as a directly proportional factor to the distance perceived, indicates that the moon illusion cannot be referred to as an angular account. Figure 6 Kaufman 2006 shows the log perceived depth otherwise regarded as distance (x-axis) and log size (y-axis). A straight line is formed with a gradient of approximately 1, therefore suggesting size is proportional to distance as distance is to size. Tozawa (2006) investigated the roles of motion parallax and perspective cues on size and distance perception and the results yielded were similar and supported the SDIH. Weizman and Cohen (2003) also investigated the SDIH via a matching task using 4 different groups of subjects varying in age. Results indicated 41-88% viewed the horizon moon to be of a greater size and as a consequence supporting the SDIH. 3.2 The paradox The issue with the SDIH is it induces a paradox since many people do not experience the conditions it sets ;( the horizon moon appears both larger and further away) for e.g. (Higayshima 2006, Kaufman 2007, Kotaro Suzuki 2007, Kaufman 2006, Gregory 2007, Jones et al 2009). Instead (Mccready section 3) found up to 90% and Kaufman (2000) 9/10, view the larger horizon moon to be perceived as closer. Size constancy is the visual systems ability to maintain the accurate perception of real size of an object regardless of the change in retinal images size Combe Wexler (2009) Gregory (2007) i.e. when a person is walking away their physical dimensions do not appear to shrink, this relationship is maintained by size constancy regardless of the change in distance, which should create a smaller image size on the retina. One idea proposed as an answer is observers use the perceived distance to scale perceived size, as in SDIH. When enquired about distance, this scaled size and previous experience of sizes of objects from size constancy are used to determine distance. Hence due to this experience the observer makes a logical choice, thus in effect proposing there is a bias towards experiencing bigger objects to appear closer Kaufman (2000) (2007). However what is suggested in effect is there are two different routes taken to decipher size from distance and distance from size and without a ny direct evidence these ideas cannot be accepted as yet. 3.3 The apparent distance theory The apparent distance theory states the perceived distance is not only determined by the retinal image size, but factors such as visual cues within the surrounding terrain play a controlling role in judgment, for e.g. (Gregory 2008), Suzuki (2007), Kaufman (2000). There are many different types of visual cues from which the visual system can infer distance from and the amount of effect each cue has also varies. The terrain in one direction and its absence in the other play a vital role in the illusion Kaufman and Rock (1962). The role of cues plays an integral part in the SDIH, since the perceived distance determines the judged size and in effect can be described as SDIH since the findings directly support it. Pictorial representations of the illusion have been used as a methodology for investigation of depth cues, for e.g. (Coren and Aks 1990, Redding 2002, Jones et al 2009).The benefit of this being that any structural factors such as accommodation that may contribute towards the processing of size and distance are eliminated as cues and only visual cues i.e. terrain are left to investigate Redding (2002) Coren Aks (1990). The apparent distance theory would predict the horizon moon appears bigger due to distance cues placing it at a further distance and the zenith moon as closer, hence smaller, just as in SDIH. Jones and Wilson (2009) findings supported the apparent distance theory and demonstrate the level of effect of cues on the perceived distance. They used pictorial representations of of different salience as cues to depth, figure 7 displays the pictures used in increasing salience of each picture from A-D. Subjects viewed a reference moon placed on the horizon and zenith on the different scenes (figure 7 A-D) and compared this to a set of variable moon sizes on a computer, judging the match in size. A positive score (above 0) in the results from figure 8 indicated a perceived increase in size. Results show as the salience increases so does the perception of size for both moon trajectories, therefore these findings emphasize regardless of salience of cues, the mere presence of some form of cues effectively increase perceived size. However in all scenes the horizon moon is perceived bigger and significantly more so in the two scenes of high salience (figure 7 C and D). This infers proxi mity is a key factor and thus illustrates why the horizon moon is judged bigger, since it is in closer proximity to the terrain and the greater salience exaggerates this effect. Figure 7 taken from Stephanie 2009 figure 1 illustrating the different pictorial representations used as devices for the different depths of cues. A) Drawing of lowest depth cue salience B) Drawing of intermediate depth cue salience C)Drawing of high depth cue salience- Town scene D) Drawing of high depth cue salience- City scene. Figure 8 From Stephanie et al 2009 experiment number 1. The results were based on the size of error scores between the subjective responses of perceived size of the variable moon compared to the control moon size. Significant differences in size between the horizon moon and elevated moon indicated the degree of strength each cue played on that particular moon. The positive error score indicated an increase in perceived size and negative score a decrease. Redding (2002) also supported that cues in the terrain are essential for size scaling to create the impression of a bigger horizon moon, as well as the proximity to the terrain. A pictorial representation of an upright and inverted gradient, with two moons positioned like figure. The upright gradient produces fine details very close together giving the impression of a receding distance like in the horizon. However the upright gradient was more spaced out mimicking the large expanses of space surrounding the zenith moon. The apparent distance theory would predict a reverse in the illusion if the visual scene was inverted i.e. the horizon moon would now look smaller than the zenith. The results show the mean illusion, where a positive score indicates the normal moon illusion occurred and negative the reverse. These results demonstrate the prediction was correct since the horizon moon size increased in the upright direction and reversed in the inverted. Within virtual environments it has been found the size constancy mechanism is very strong when the object being viewed is surrounded by an environment, where comparisons can be made to decipher distance from, for e.g. (Kenyon et al 2007, Tanaka Fujita 2007, murgia and sharkey 2009). It has been suggested the elevated moon is perceived smaller due to the lack of surrounding visual cues for e.g. (Higashiyama 2006, Kaufman 2000, Jones et al2009). The proposed idea is the zenith moon due to no visual cues is placed at default distance related to the resting focus of approximately 1-2m regarded as empty space myopia, thus leading to its small perceived size (Da Silva 1989, Gogel Mertz, 1989, Redding 2002, Gregory 2007, Suzuki 2007). 3.4 Sky dome illusions The apparent shape of the sky was previously replicated in a drawing by King and Gruber (1962), where they made subjects project afterimages onto the sky in different directions (horizon 45. Zenith). Results had shown 81% of subjects viewed the moon bigger in the horizon sky than at 45. and 87% viewed horizon bigger than the zenith. Weizman and Cohen (2003) found the sky is perceived as an oblate profile i.e. like an inverted bowl with a flat top (see figure) and cues within this frame are used to judge the distance. It has been proposed this flattened dome top causes the zenith moon to appear closer and thus smaller. This theory implies a mental map of the shape of the sky as an oblate- bowl shape, with the flat portion directly above the observers head. This flatter area causes the perception of a shorter distance to the sky just above the observers head and thus causes the zenith moon to be perceived as smaller. This is very similar to the SDIH approach which states the same fundamental reasons, but the SDIH suggests its the absence of visual cues that place the zenith moon at a closer distance and hence smaller, not a mental map model of the sky. However Toskovich (2009) examined to test if the flattened sky caused the moon size to reduce and suggested otherwise. Subjects viewed the moon in the horizon, 45Â ° and zenith positions using head movements and were positioned at 1m, 3m and 5m from the moon. They were instructed to determine distance and size estimates from these positions. Results had shown from 1m subjects perceived distance is the same in all directions thus indicating at close distances the visual system is able to interpret very accurately. However from 3m and 5m found the distances perceived to the zenith as larger than towards the horizon and no differences in size estimations at any direction. This is opposite to the flattened sky dome approach and proposes the sky is rather perceived as elongated towards the zenith and not flat. These findings suggest the illusion is affected by head position and location. 4. Visual angle illusions To begin with Descartes, 1664 Wade 2000 pg (354-355) suggested associations with familiar objects, accommodation and convergence are all cues to distance. The apparent-distance theory is built upon the assumption the actual perceived visual angle is interpreted as the same as the physical linear visual angle Reed and Kuprinski (2009). However, alternative theories suggest the perceived visual angle may be affected by oculomotor processes unconsciously Mccready (2006) Keef and Kuprinski (2009) and size/distance then subsequently inferred from this. 4.1 The retinal representation of the moon illusion If the illusion causes the perceived visual angle to change by becoming enlarged, then subsequently the perceived retinal image size should also increase. Murray et al (2006) found illusions such as the moon illusion affect retinal representation of the image size in the primary visual cortex (V1). Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a 3d scene of a hallway with walls, an image had been produced containing information to apparent depth, see figure 9a for an illustration. Two 6.5 degree sized spheres were arranged like in figure 9a and the results showed the back sphere appeared to be 17% larger in angular size than the front sphere (even when of the same physical angular size). The results in figure 9a also illustrate the peak MRI signal responses were found higher at higher eccentricities for the perceptually larger back sphere than the front and the back sphere occupied a larger area in the V1 cortex. Thus implying the perceived bigger size of the back sphere cre ated a bigger images size on the retina. Furthermore these results were compared to the responses generated by two physically different sized spheres without any illusion (6.5Â ° versus 8.125Â ° and 4.875Â ° versus 6.875Â ° sized spheres, as shown in figure 9bc). The findings demonstrate the responses generated from two physically different sized spheres yielded a response very similar to 9a. Therefore indicating the illusion created an actual change in the retinal image size and a greater eccentricity was occupied by the back sphere as a result. Thus the depth illusion causes a change in the perceived angular size on the retina and hence providing evidence towards scaling processes affecting the representation on the retina (Murray et al 2006). Since only a change in the physical visual angle or perceived visual angle may cause this change in retinal image size. Figure 9 taken from Murray et al 2006 displaying the hallway and the walls creating the illusion. the trial response graph shows the perceptual difference in angular size between the two objects. The top graph illustrates the fMRI activity for the perceived larger back object extending in eccentricity beyond that of the perceived smaller front object. The bottom row shows a similar response is triggered when two objects of physically different angular sizes are shown (with no hallway illusion placed). Therefore indicating the cause in the back object to be perceived more distant is due to an increase in angular size. 4.2 Accommodative micropsia The visual terrain contribution to the moon illusion may be mediated by the state of the oculomotor system and not via the size-distance invariance mechanism, or size constancy scaling Suzuki (2007). The perceived distance may affect the accommodation response or the converse of this may also be true i.e. the level of accommodation may affect the perceived distance of a stimulus (Edgar 2007, Suzuki 2007, Lou 2007). The micropsia phenomenon causes objects to appear smaller than usual and macropsia bigger, whereby they can be induced by changes in accommodation/ Vergence leading to underestimation/ overestimation of its apparent size Howard Rogers (2002). When viewing the zenith moon there is no depth cues and the moon is isolated in an empty space. This causes the eyes to converge onto the single object of the zenith moon, thus increasing in convergence as it does. This increase in convergence induces increase in accommodation causing the decrease in angular size and is known as micropsia, for e.g. Howard Rogers (2002) Mccready (2004) section 4, Lou (2007), Suzuki (2007). However when viewing the horizon moon in its natural settings, objects acting as depth cues in the terrain may cause the AC/V system to adjust from near to far distance thus increased divergence invoking an increase in angular size known as macropsia (Lou 2007, Mccready 2004 section 4, Tanaka Fujita 2007, Suzuki 2007). Lou (2007) used afterimages of dark circles viewed against a mobile white background on which this reference circle was projected on, see figure 10. These afterimages were projected from the various distances and subjects adjusted the variable stimulus on a computer screen when perceived a match with the reference. Results indicated subjects perceived afterimages to decrease in size at focal distances less than 1m i.e. distances at a closer range. Figure 11 displays the 30cm, 90cm and 200cm distances from where the afterimage was projected and regardless of these distances the same response of decrease in matched size. The focal distances affected the matched size and not the distance the afterimages were projected from, Lou (2007) suggested these findings are representation of accommodation micropsia. Although oculomotor cues are used as cues to distance just as visual pictorial cues are used also, they are less effective up to distances >2m Kaufman (2000). Oculomotor cues and pictorial cues play a role in judging distance, however at longer distances pictorial cues play a greater role as determinants of distance Kaufman (2000), Coren and Aks (1990). become slightly near-sighted in relative darkness (night myopia) proof is just to show accomodtaion/convergence effort changes when viewing horizon and elevated moons Figure 10 Figure 11 taken from figure 2b (Lou 2007). This figure demonstrates the 30cm, 90cm and 200cm distances from which the afterimages were viewed from and the perceived angular match to the control afterimage of size 4.25degrees. The straight angular line indicates the actual size of the afterimage (4.25 degrees). The perceived match of the angular size (y-axis) versus calculated focal distance (x-axis). All about enright and roscoedifferent eye adjustement for horizon/zenith moon measured In conclusion against oculomotor micropsia/macropsia, oculomotor cues are less effective in regards to objects being viewed at longer distances. Here the visual/ perceptual system becomes more dependent on other cues such as pictorial factors Arditi (1986) from Kaufman (2000). Kaufman et als claim is that because the moon is far away, pictorial cues dominate oculomotor cues for distance perception. Kaufman (2006) in the end argues that distance is interpreted first and then angular size. Arguing against the micropsia theory. Also , absence of these surrounding environments the size constancy changes to visual angle performance Kenyon (2007) As you look up to the sky convergence increases therefore increased accommodation occurs causing perception of closer moon distance, therefore according to SDIH a smaller perceived size. REFER TO KAUFMAN 2000 But, these micropsia and macropsia illusions cause angular size differences of less than 10%, nowhere near large enough to account for the moon illusion seen by most persons. Also, if accommodation were involved in the moon illusion, youd think that elderly people who have lost nearly all accommodation should not perceive the illusion. Yet they do. Persons with eye lens implants have no accommodation, and they do perceive the moon illusion. Covering one eye removes convergence from consideration, but that doesnt make the moon illusion go away. Pinhole astronomy 4.3 Angle of regard When looking at the horizon moon the head is positioned at eye level, where as when viewing the elevated moon the head position is further elevated by almost 45degs. It has been suggested the tilt or elevation of the head or eyes may affect the judgment of distance and thus implying the moon illusion as anisotropy (directionally dependent) for e.g. Holway and Boring (1940), Higashiyama Adachi (2006), Suzuki (2007), Toskovich (2009). Suzuki (2007) investigated the ratio of size of afterimages projected onto the horizon and zenith sky. Subjects were instructed to project the afterimages onto the horizon sky at eyelevel and then project the image again however after elevating the eye position by 60 degrees (using neck movements) onto the same area of the sky. This was also repeated for the zenith sky and the results yielded indicate the illusion is 1.09 times greater when the eyes are in an elevated position compared to eye level. These findings indicate the level of elevation of the eyes has an effect on the illusion magnitude and is consistent with previous findings. Proprioceptve descriptions suggest non visual components may contribute to judging distance using head direction, body posture, vestibular and kinetic information Toskovich (2009). Furthermore Toskovich suggested head tilt upwards could cause the perceived space to elongate. Figure 11 taken from (Roscoe and Acosta 2008)~figure 4. The number 0 would indicate a perfect size match and a positive value indicates an increase in size and negative vice versa. The x-axis displays the accommodative effort exerted by the visual system and the y-axis the interpretation of the moon size. Anisotropy End with (Perceived size and perceived distance of targets viewed from between the legs: Evidence for proprioceptive theory 2006) and how this supports direct perception model rather than the apparent distance model. (Therefore supports everything except this model) In another experiment 2 Toskovich (2009) measured size at the 3 distances and found size did not change in the three viewing directions and thus suggested the moon illusion may not be caused by a linear account, instead a more contributed input of vestibular information. (Higashiyama Adachi 2006) supported this theory and found the illusion disappeared when viewing through the legs. Thus suggesting the moon illusion is caused by the elevation of head tilt. An astronaut who views the moon above the horizon from low-earth orbit lacks terrain cues to distance. We now know that in this situation the illusion vanishes (Lu et al., 2006) from (Kayfman et al 2007). The terrestrial passage theory offers an alternative idea regarding the visual angle theories mentioned. It states the subjects learn to form an expected change in visual angle when viewing objects at different projections from past familiar experiences (Reed and Kuprinski, 2009). In a sample of 48 subjects this hypothesis was tested and the c

Patents are Essential to the Modern World Essays -- Intellectual Prope

Patents are Essential to the Modern World A patent is the public disclosure of the invention and the best way of practicing the invention, in exchange for the rights to that information for a set period of time - twenty years. A patent permits its owner to exclude members of the public from making, using, or selling the claimed invention. This type of arrangement is a necessity for any type of scientific work. It allows other people to share in the ideas that have been thought and utilized by a company and/or individuals so that research is not unnecessarily performed twice. This is beneficial to the owner of the intellectual property (IP) so that financial reward can be obtained, and knowledge can be freely publicized for others thereby not inhibiting the progression of technology and science. This is a necessary step in the flow of scientific information so that the entire system remains efficient. The patent is a great way for protecting an inventor’s idea however there are some conditions attached to the granting of a patent. These are in relation to the use and history of the invention. The criteria that need to be met are that the invention is ‘Novel’, ‘non-obvious’ and commercial utility. The invention also has to work (be reproducible) and can not have been published publicly at any event prior to the filing of a patent. These factors need to be assessed before an application for a patent is filed. The patent is the most powerful method available to the owner of IP because it offers the most comprehensive cover, along with the most options in the ways that the idea can make money for the persons involved. Other means of protection are quite feeble in comparison to the patent, for example ... ... company. Or they are supplied with an annual crop which can only be used once, as it produces sterile seeds, and therefore they would have to purchase the same invention many times over simply due to a lack of money. This ensures rewards are passed on to the inventors of the invention. This is good in a commercial sense and enables quick progression of commercial products. It is also good in a way of freedom of research information. However the end user might not always be as well off as they could be. Overall the use of patents is an essential step in the commercialization of any product in the modern scientific environment. It is a method of trying to reduce the doubling up of research and ensuring the correct people are paid for the inventions. It is essential that some basic rules are followed and every idea is scrutinized by an application process.

Gibson Kente Essay

Gibson Kente: Arguably the most popular playwright-director in South African Theatre history is â€Å"Bra Gib†, Gibson Kente. Born in 1932, Kente became the father of Black Theatre. He was a great patriot and founding father of Black Theatre in South ; an effective voice of the oppressed though the arts, he articulated the socio-economic imbalances created by the apartheid regime. Kente was not only an artist but also a vehicle for change. He conscientised the nation through music and theatre and gave a nation confidence in the midst of repression and brutality. Kente was largely unknown to the white theatre-going population of South Africa – however he produced 23 plays and many TV dramas from 1963-1992. Kente grew up in Duncan Village, a black village in the Eastern Cape. He was schooled at a Seventh-Day Adventist College in Butterworth. In 1956, he moved to Johannesburg and enrolled at the Jan Hofmeyer School of Social Work. He eventually abandoned his studies after he joined a black theatre group called the Union Artists. This is where he embarked on his career writing, producing and directing, where he created the unique genre referred to as the â€Å"township musical. Kente developed a style and pattern for his plays specifically to deal with the challenges and needs of his audiences. His plays were melodramas of township life, which were performed in an over-the-top, stylized manner using stock characters and a declamatory style of performance. His style of directing his actors to ‘overact’ was in order to compens ate for many of the townships venues which had poor acoustics. His use of music, movement, gesture, gimmicks, dance and acrobatics were directly related to his problem with township venues. These large halls were not complimentary to any type of method acting. The movements had to be unnaturalistic, the acting was vigorous and exaggerated well beyond reality, in order to have an impact on the eye and the ear. There was also a devaluing of dialogue – the dialogue is in English, however, most of it was inaudible because of audience noise and interaction, bad voice projection in the acoustically unsound halls, the musical band and unfamiliarity with words from the script. The audiences were not there to appreciate the subtlety of language through the use of puns or witticisms – they were there to be entertained through the stock characters antics – to recognize themselves on stage. Kente’s aim was to fill township venues and he did. The majority of his plays are stylistically similar: the acting style hardly varies, the story development is superficial, there is an absence of conflict other than the physical fights and the slanging matches between characters. The plots were simple – they were made up of occurrences which were happening in the townships and in daily township life. Ian Steadman writes in his article Alternative Politics, Alternative Performance: 1976 and Black South African Theatre that â€Å"while he [Kente] has been criticised by more radical Black Consciousness proponents for being a-political, Kente’s theatre succeeds in creating social comment and criticism – sometimes by implication, at other times by direct proseltism† (1984: 219).

Context in Frankenstein and Blade Runner Essay

The context of the time of writing is an integral part of a text’s composition and ideas. This notion is evident in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) and Ridley Scott’s 1982 science fiction film, Blade Runner. They both address ideas contemporary at the time, but are both interconnected through a common questioning of what may happen if humans attempt to play god. As a romanticist, Shelley condemns Frankenstein’s intrusive attempt to play the creator. Scott spurns man’s ruthless ambition through a dystopian environment created through ruthless quest for profit by commercially dominant, greedy corporations. Both texts employ techniques such as allusion and characterisation to depict similar dystopian visions ensuing from man’s dereliction of nature. Composed during the Industrial Revolution at a time of increased scientific experimentation, Shelley warns and forebodes her enlightened society of the consequences which come about from playing god. She uses Victor Frankenstein as her platform, whose self-exalting line â€Å"many excellent natures would owe their being to me† represents a society engrossed with reanimation. Recurring mythical allusions to Prometheus, â€Å"how dangerous is the acquirement of knowledge† portray Victor as a tragic hero; a noble character whose â€Å"fatal flaw† of blind ambition ultimately results in his own downfall and dehumanization, â€Å"swallowed up every habit of my nature†. In addition, Victor’s impulsive rejection of his grotesque creation, leads to the Monster’s rebellion (â€Å"vowed eternal hated and vengeance to all mankind†). Despite the mismatch in time and context, Scott also incorporates similar elements of horror, but procures a man-made cataclysm that is a product of his own desire to achieve commercial dominance. Unlike Shelley’s moralistic warning, the flames in the opening scene highlight a dystopian world that has already reached an undesirable outcome. Revising Victor’s undermining of God’s prerogative, Scott conveys Tyrell’s capitalist fixation through his mantra â€Å"commerce is our goal†. The composer reinforces this through multiple low angle shot of Tyrell’s monolithic corporation, highlighting its command over its depressing urban surroundings. By doing so, Scott denounces the arrogance of corporate giants and their reckless disregard for the proletarians. Furthermore, Scott’s reflection of a society engulfed within Cold-war paranoia of a potential nuclear disaster is depicted through Tyrell’s violent death at the hands of his own creation, Batty. Here, Tyrell’s scream as Roy ruptures his myopia-riddled eyes, a metaphor of his blind ambition, creates an ambience of utmost horror as responders construe how man’s hubristic desire to achieve utmost power results in his destruction. However, unlike Shelley’s critique of heedless scientific pursuit, Scott’s perspective has shifted to that of man’s capitalist voracity and is a reflection upon the 20th century’s rapid expansion of multinational corporations. In comparison to Shelley’s discourse, Scott’s manifestation of a plain, industrialised world is his suspicion that technological progression has already discerned man’s divergence from nature. In the film’s opening sequence, Scott portrays his dystopian society through film-noir style of perpetual darkness, where the superficial world’s only source of illumination is from the glow of man-made neon lights. Moreover, the composer’s representation of a world ravaged by technological expansion is symbolised through the absence of authentic fauna and their substitution with artificial fauna. However, in light of Shelley’s embrace of sublime nature, Scott also conveys how the presence of nature can facilitate the hope of spiritual renewal; proposing its entire restoration. The composer denotes this through his transient but vivid depiction of Deckard’s fleeting unicorn dream. Contrary to Shelley, however, Scott’s depiction of nature within a subliminal dream is metaphorical of his belief that rapid technological innovation has already superseded the position of nature. Therefore the film’s 20th century context encompassing fears ecological degradation evokes his admonition that rapid technological progression may already have made impossible a possible return to nature.

1. Representing Your Country in Any Negotiation Is a Serious Commitment and a Major Responsibility. Discuss Your Action and Preparation for the Agenda. Essay Example

1. Representing Your Country in Any Negotiation Is a Serious Commitment and a Major Responsibility. Discuss Your Action and Preparation for the Agenda. Essay Example 1. Representing Your Country in Any Negotiation Is a Serious Commitment and a Major Responsibility. Discuss Your Action and Preparation for the Agenda. Essay 1. Representing Your Country in Any Negotiation Is a Serious Commitment and a Major Responsibility. Discuss Your Action and Preparation for the Agenda. Essay Essay Topic: Everything I Never Told You Negotiation is the process of getting what you want for what you want. Negotiation happen everyday in every facet of life. But when representing a country, it is a huge responsibility. Because when we represent a country, the country pride is at our shoulder. It will be more important if we are going to negotiate with other countries as it will affects the relations between countries in the future, and it will be watched closely by the international community, So what determines whether negotiation is successful or a failure? One of the key tools to success is quantity and depth of preparation you undertake before sit down with your counterparts to discuss your deal. Negotiation has two outcomes you either get what you want (for what you want) or you fail. Failure could result in both failing to obtain what you want or trading over. Negotiation is typically seen as a four stage process, the first step and perhaps the most important step in negotiation is preparation. A negotiation can be won or lost in the preparation phase. Effective negotiation involves thoughtful planning and preparation. Along with good negotiating skills of the negotiators at the bargaining table, good research analysis is an important determinant of a negotiation outcome. But what does preparation entail? Simply put its knowing what you want, what you wont accept and factors that might influence the outcome of the deal. According to Saner (2000), the three major phases of the negotiation life cycle are: Planning, Action and Assessment. The Planning process actually takes place before the major phase, i. e. Action, which is literally the negotiation period among the parties. The Planning phase includes identifying the problem area and awareness of conflicts, analysis of need and identifying the interests of the stakeholders, selecting the objective and strategy, selection of tactics and knowing the opponent. The Assessment phase consists in the evaluation of the negotiation, which determines whether the negotiation is complete or there is any scope for a future negotiation. Each negotiation is going to be different, no matter how often weve addressed similar situations. We will always be negotiating with people who have different styles, goals and objectives, and who are coming from different circumstances and have different standards. So, always take stock and gauge each negotiation as something unique. There are basically two types of conflict situations we may encounter in a negotiation. Conflicts can present themselves singularly, or may be a mixture of the two. It is vital that the negotiator carefully analyze the conflict issues, both individually and collectively, to fully appreciate the unique challenges they present. By analyzing the types of conflict into categories, negotiators can have a better understanding of the real measure of the disputes, and frame or focus their strategies more effectively. There are only two reasons why we enter into a negotiation. The first reason occurs when out of necessity, we have to. This could be due to either some immediate need, such as urgency to find a particular supplier, or it could be that we face severe cutbacks in personnel, if we cant increase our business. The second reason occurs when we are seeking out an opportunity. This situation may arise simply because an opportunity has sprung up, where we can increase our overall business at an opportune time. The reason for entering into a negotiation will affect both our approach and strategy, and also our relative negotiating power in comparison to our counterpart. We also need to ask ourselves whether the results of the negotiation we are conducting, will affect other negotiations or agreements later. Countries today have international interests. An agreement with the particular country, may affect how talks will impact or be influenced, with negotiations that will transpire later. With other countries, its vital that we, as negotiators, consider the impact or consequences of an agreement in developing our strategy. We either enter into negotiations because we have to, or because we want to. Part of our strategy will involve a careful analysis of our BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement). If an agreement is absolutely essential, and we have few alternative options, in the event of talks collapsing, this will affect our strategy. Or, if the negotiated agreement is not essential because we have a strong option, and can walk away with confidence, this also influences the approach to our strategy. Negotiations are often private affairs with little fanfare, until an agreement is signed. There are also agreements that are advertised afterwards, to maximize the mutual benefit both sides obtain. On other occasions, negotiations may be held in strict secrecy. Then, there are the highly publicized occasions when the press becomes actively involved. It could be that one of the negotiating parties uses the powers of the press, to lever an advantage to sway and manipulate the outcome. We need only scan the daily newspapers, to understand the importance of how public involvement can influence and add intense pressure to some negotiations. The press can be utilized as a public forum to embarrass our opponents’ into action, or to deflect their strategy. Press releases are another means to use as an effective strategy in the negotiation process. Time has an impact on the course of negotiations from two perspectives. First there are deadlines that might be imposed, to either make or break an agreement. Offers with expiry dates may be tendered. Secondly, we all know that Time is money. Negotiations use up time, and if a plant is shut down while the clock is ticking because of a strike, then this is costing money. Or, it could be due to some other resource issue, such as waiting for badly needed components, in order to resume production. The point to remember is that the longer the negotiations drag out; time will negatively affect the bottom line. But in a negotiation, everything can happen, so we must be ready if the negotiation process extends to a period of time. It can also take a long time for it to reach an agreement and finalized. We should never automatically assume that a negotiation is going to result into a successful agreement. Always ask yourself, Okay! If all else fails, what other choices or options do I have? This means that it is most desirable to have some options or alternatives to turn to when the talks collapse. To use the popular parlance of negotiation, this means we need to know our BATNA which is the acronym for Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement, a term popularized by Roger Fisher and William Ury in their best selling novel titled, Getting to Yes Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In. Knowing our own interests and figuring out their real interests is not enough. We cant just make up a simple list and figure thats all we have to do. We need to prioritize and rank this list according to importance. By understanding our own priorities and our counterparts priorities we can more effectively consider our concessions in terms of their strengths relative to each side. The idea is to give up on less important concessions which may have value to them, while getting the other side to give us concessions which are more important to us. When agreement or conclusions have been reached and you are ready to end your negotiation, review the agreement that has been reached. Then, end your negotiation on a positive note. Commending those involved and emphasizing the progress made. Once you have reached agreement over the terms of your negotiation you must then close the deal. This can often be the cause of many frustrations and broken deals as once you have agreed a deal – how do you ensure it’s enforced? Closing your negotiation implies that you will not improve your offer or you have what you want. It’s important to know when to do this as closing too early could alert your opponent into realizing the deal is not in their favor and they may attempt to pull out of the deal. Closing too late could have the opposite affect and you may end up trading over the odds, offering needless concessions which go against your original proposal. As has been told earlier, preparation is the most important part of a negotiation. Be ready, because it will determine what will happen at the negotiation table. All of our action will be based on our preparation before the meeting takes place. When representing a country in negotiation, its not that we went there as an individual, but we are the representative of a country that want something or resolving a disputes with other countries that clearly will not just agree just like that.

Free Essays on Happiness

The Biggest Lie in Today’s Society One of the biggest lies in society is the definition of achieving true happiness. What is happiness? According to Michael Argyle, the author of â€Å"The Psychology of Happiness†, people may describe happiness in terms of contentment, satisfaction, peace of mind, feeling fulfilled, or in terms of enjoyment, pleasure and having fun† (Argyle 2). According to the Webster Dictionary, happiness can be defined as feelings of joy and pleasure mingled together. To me happiness is more than just an experience of joy or pleasure. It is a state of mind where the individual feels that â€Å"life is good†. Despite how popular happiness really is, psychology has more often focused on negative emotions. From 1967 to 1994, â€Å"Psychological Abstracts† (a readers guide to psychological literature) included 5099 articles mentioning anger, 36.851 mentioning anxiety, 46.380 mentioning depression. For every 17 abstracts on these topics, only one mentioned satisfaction (2340), or happiness (2389). There is a tendency for most people to explain happiness or unhappiness in terms of the external events of their lives. They explain happiness by pointing to the positives; they explain unhappiness by pointing to the negatives. The implication is that events determine whether or not they are happy. I have always thought that our attitudes have far more to do with how happy we are than any external circumstances. Today, research supports such views. For instance, Sergeant Wilson (an active duty army soldier) served in Iraq and Afghanistan for about one year and a half dealing with numerous horrific experiences. Before he left, like many soldiers, he had a positive yet proactive state of mind. He told himself that regardless of where life and its circumstances took him, he would not allow it to diminish his spirit. Like many people today, by setting a standard in which one does not allow happiness itself to be affec... Free Essays on Happiness Free Essays on Happiness The Biggest Lie in Today’s Society One of the biggest lies in society is the definition of achieving true happiness. What is happiness? According to Michael Argyle, the author of â€Å"The Psychology of Happiness†, people may describe happiness in terms of contentment, satisfaction, peace of mind, feeling fulfilled, or in terms of enjoyment, pleasure and having fun† (Argyle 2). According to the Webster Dictionary, happiness can be defined as feelings of joy and pleasure mingled together. To me happiness is more than just an experience of joy or pleasure. It is a state of mind where the individual feels that â€Å"life is good†. Despite how popular happiness really is, psychology has more often focused on negative emotions. From 1967 to 1994, â€Å"Psychological Abstracts† (a readers guide to psychological literature) included 5099 articles mentioning anger, 36.851 mentioning anxiety, 46.380 mentioning depression. For every 17 abstracts on these topics, only one mentioned satisfaction (2340), or happiness (2389). There is a tendency for most people to explain happiness or unhappiness in terms of the external events of their lives. They explain happiness by pointing to the positives; they explain unhappiness by pointing to the negatives. The implication is that events determine whether or not they are happy. I have always thought that our attitudes have far more to do with how happy we are than any external circumstances. Today, research supports such views. For instance, Sergeant Wilson (an active duty army soldier) served in Iraq and Afghanistan for about one year and a half dealing with numerous horrific experiences. Before he left, like many soldiers, he had a positive yet proactive state of mind. He told himself that regardless of where life and its circumstances took him, he would not allow it to diminish his spirit. Like many people today, by setting a standard in which one does not allow happiness itself to be affec...

3 Top Tips for Writing Exceptional Georgetown Essays

3 Top Tips for Writing Exceptional Georgetown Essays SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips With an acceptance rate of just 17 percent, Georgetown is ranked as an extremely competitive school. If you want to be a part of the student body, you need to impress, and one of the best opportunities you have to do that is in your Georgetown essays. Don’t let the Georgetown essay prompts intimidate you. Though they may look complicated at first- and they do ask complex questions- some foresight and planning will help you write essays that are sure to impress. This guide will walk you through the Georgetown essays, giving you a look into the expectations and thought process behind each of the essay prompts. Feature Image:Patrickneil/Wikimedia Commons What Should You Know About the Georgetown Essay Prompts? Georgetown doesn't use the Common or Coalition Application. Instead, you’ll be filling out an application tailored specifically to their desires, though it may cover most of the same information. Because of that, you’ll want to pay extra close attention to what you discuss in your essays. Your essays should be tied specifically to Georgetown rather than the more general approach of the Coalition or Common Application. The Georgetown essays include one short essay of about a half-page, single-spaced, one longer one-page essay required of all students, and a second one-page essay specifically tied to one of Georgetown’s four schools: Georgetown College, the School of Nursing and Health Studies, Walsh School of Foreign Service, and the McDonough School of Business. Students in the arts- specifically music, dance, theater, and studio art- may submit additional portfolios as part of their application, but it isn’t required. Writing your Georgetown essays might feel something like this, but there's a clear path through! What Are the Required Georgetown Essay Prompts? Because Georgetown’s application is only for Georgetown, you’ll immediately notice that they’re a lot more specific than the Common or Coalition prompts. You should keep that specificity in mind as you answer the questions, thinking not just about why you want to go to a good school, but why you want to attend Georgetown specifically. How to Answer the Georgetown Short Essay Prompt Briefly discuss the significance to you of the school or summer activity in which you have been most involved.(One half-page, single spaced.) This question is pretty straightforward. Though you’ve no doubt discussed your extracurriculars throughout your application, this question asks you to think deeper about one of them. Ask yourself why you do those activities, and what they personally mean to you. â€Å"Why,† not â€Å"what,† should be the question you’re answering. Flesh out your mentions of extracurriculars in your application with discussions of why you do them and what you’ve learned. The activity you discuss should be significant to you- not something you do purely for fun or something you do because your parents make you. As with the first question, don’t inflate things to look more impressive. If you spent most of your summer watching TV, that might be relevant if you’re an aspiring screenwriter, and you can mention it- but again, answer the question ofwhy. Why did you choose the shows you did? What did you learn from them? That said, watching TV isn’tthe bestchoice. You’d be better off discussing how you spent your summer working on an original short film or participating in a workshop for aspiring screenwriters- but no matter what your preferred activity, there is a way to discuss why it’s significant to you and what you learned from it. This prompt gives you space to discuss your interests, particularly the things that can’t be represented by numbers as grades and test scores can. It gives Georgetown a clearer picture of you, which helps in their decision. This is also a space to expand on participation. Maybe you never became captain of the swim team and you’ve been worried that the lack of leadership might count against you. In this essay, you can explain that though that was your goal, you didn’t quite make it- but that you learned a lot anyway. This essay really is about what’s significant to you, so there are no wrong answers- it’s your execution that matters. Avoid being too general, or focusing too much on picking the most impressive thing from your roster if that thing didn’t actually matter to you. Be genuine with what’s significant to you and your essay will be stronger for it. This essay is the perfect one to show off what makes you unique. How to Answer the Georgetown Essay Prompt for All Applicants As Georgetown is a diverse community, the Admissions Committee would like to know more about you in your own words. Please submit a brief essay, either personal or creative, which you feel best describes you. (One page, single-spaced.) Notice how the emphasis on this question is on you. This is called a â€Å"Why You?† style essay- though the application is for Georgetown, the admissions office wants to know why you’ll be a good fit for the college and what you in particular will bring to the student body. What this means is that Georgetown doesn’t want to hear about how they have the best program or the greatest campus. They want to know about you and what makes you unique. When answering this question, think about what makes you a good fit for Georgetown’s student body. Consider their mission statement, their origin as a Catholic and Jesuit college, and what that means today. That doesn’t mean that you need to identify yourself as Catholic if you aren’t (please don’t do that), but that you should consider the role that faith plays in Georgetown’s approach to education. How does their mission statement connectto your own life and educational goals? Demonstrating that you understand the school’s mission and how you can contribute to it as a student is one of the most important parts of this question. But â€Å"Why You?† is only part of the question. The specific mention of diversity is important, too. Its inclusion in the question means that it’s important to Georgetown, and they want you to demonstrate that it’s important to you, too. Don’t get too fixated on typical meanings of â€Å"diverse.† We often use the word to refer to the variety of genders, sexualities, races, socio-economic statuses, and so on that exist in the world, but diversity of thought is worthwhile, too. Of course, you should write about your gender, sexuality, race, and so on if it’s relevant to what you’ll bring to campus- and it often is- but don’t feel like it’s all you have to offer. Think about what your experience has taught you, and how those lessons will contribute to Georgetown’s diverse student body. That can mean discussing overcoming socio-economic hardship, or it can mean relating how you and your seven brothers used to squabble until you realized working together got chores done faster. Everybody has a unique story to tell, and this is Georgetown offering you space to tell yours. Georgetown invites you to get creative here, but if you want to take a more embellished approach than a traditional essay, be sure that that creativity comes through in your writing and language rather than in the events. Don’t inflate things to look more interesting or diverse than you are- this is your chance to flesh out the grades and test scores with your personality, so be sure it’s your personality that the admissions office sees. How to Answer the Georgetown College Essay Prompt Georgetown College is the largest undergraduate school at Georgetown University, and contains many of the school's arts and sciences programs. What does it mean to you to be educated? How might Georgetown College help you achieve this aim? (Applicants to the Sciences and Mathematics or the Faculty of Languages and Linguistics should address their chosen course of study.) (One page, single-spaced.) This question is asking about your personal relationship with education and learning. But more than that, it’s asking you why you want to attend Georgetown, making it a â€Å"Why Us?† essay. When answering this prompt, think about your goals and how Georgetown fits into them. They don’t need to hear about how they’re a good school and you’ve always wanted to attend a competitive college- they already know that, and most other students also want to attend a good school. Why Georgetown specifically, as opposed to all the other possible schools you could apply to? This is a good place to demonstrate familiarity with their mission and curriculum. Are there particular classes or faculty driving your decision to attend? Mention them! Think holistically here. How will attending Georgetown enrich your education and help you reach your career goals? Keep their mission statement in mind as you write- consider the ideas of diversity, service to humanity, and community and how those fit into your goals. Again, avoid generalities. Your essay should have enough concrete connection to Georgetown that you couldn’t easily swap another school’s name in and still have it make sense. Of course, there will always be some overlap with other schools, but be sure that the true spirit of Georgetown comes through in your essay. Give yourself some time to prepare for your Georgetown essay and you'll be feeling like this. How to Answer the Georgetown School of Nursing Health Studies Essay Prompt Georgetown’s School of Nursing and Health Studies is exactly what it sounds like. This is where you’ll be applying if you’re interested in any of the health care fields, which is reflected in the prompt. Describe the factors that have influenced your interest in studying health care. Please specifically address your intended major (Global Health, Health Care Management Policy, Human Science, or Nursing).(One page, single-spaced.) This question isn’t quite a clear-cut â€Å"Why Us?† or â€Å"Why You?† question, unlike the previous ones. Instead, it’s asking â€Å"Why Health Care?† Again, always keep in mind Georgetown’s mission as a college: diversity, discussion, and the wellbeing of humanity. All of these things can factor into your essay in a meaningful way. Think beyond health care being a reliable and well-paying field. Why do you want to care for people? Why the health field, specifically? Tying Georgetown’s mission into this question is a great way to demonstrate your interest in the field, but also in the specific ways that this school teaches. In this question, Georgetown wants you to demonstrate your interest in the field. If you’re invested in health care, you’re more likely to succeed in the program. The admissions office also wants to know what passion and interest you’ll bring to the school, making you a student they want to invest in. If you don’t already know why you’ve chosen to pursue health care over other fields, now’s the time to start thinking about it. Health care can often be thankless, difficult, and even frightening if you’re working in emergency situations. What drives you to do it anyway? Maybe you’ve struggled with illness yourself, and you want to commit to researching cures. Or maybe you’re fascinated by the ways that disease impacts society, and you want to learn more about prevention and how to enact it on an individual basis. No matter what your career goal is, it’s important that you can explain why you’ve chosen this field over all others. However, be sure you can tie your interest to Georgetown specifically. Your essay will be even stronger if it explains not just what appeals to you about health care, but why Georgetown is the right college to help you achieve your goals. How to Answer the Walsh School of Foreign Service Essay Prompt If you’re interested in international relations, Wash School of Foreign Service is likely where you’ll be applying. Briefly discuss a current global issue, indicating why you consider it important and what you suggest should be done to deal with it.(One page, single-spaced.) Though college essays are generally not the place to launch into potentially inflammatory political topics, this question is specifically asking you to discuss a global issue. However, your answer should be well-reasoned and informed, demonstrating a thorough understanding of not just the side you agree with, but also the arguments of the opposition. This question wants you to demonstrate your awareness of the world. As a student of foreign service, you should be acquainted with what’s happening around the world and concerned with how to address important issues. You should use this opportunity to demonstrate not only what you know, but how you think about it, keeping in mind Georgetown’s mission of diversity and care for humanity. If you can show that you are interested in and engaged with the world, you demonstrate to Georgetown that you have a genuine interest in foreign service. But the service part is also important- don’t forget the part of the question that asks for your suggestions as to what can be done about the issue. Though Georgetown will no doubt be impressed if you manage to truly solve world hunger in your application, don’t worry too much about coming up with a wild, unheard-of solution. You need to support your ideas more than anything, showing Georgetown how you can address issues on a global scale with thoughtfulness and an understanding of context. Avoid focusing on an issue solely because it's a popular one if you don’t have the understanding to back it up. Georgetown wants your informed thinking on a specific topic, not an uninformed opinion on a global problem. Poverty is a global issue with plenty of potential solutions, but it's also a complex issue with many contributing factors, all of which vary throughout the world. What'sone angle that you understand well enough to speak confidently about it? A global issue is naturally going to be a big topic, but by focusing on an area you understand- such as food scarcity, a history of colonization, or climate change- your essay will be sharp and clear. The McDonough School of Business' prompt is all about why you've chosen Georgetown. How to Answer the McDonough School of Business Essay Prompt The McDonough School of Business is exactly what it sounds like. If you’re attending Georgetown with an interest in business, you’ll need to answer the following prompt: â€Å"The McDonough School of Business is a national and global leader in providing graduates with essential ethical, analytical, financial and global perspectives. Please discuss your motivations for studying business at Georgetown.†(One page, single-spaced.) The McDonough School of Business prompt is a classic â€Å"Why Us?† question, asking you to identify not just that Georgetown is a good school, but why it’s the right school for you and your interests. To answer this question, consider the university’s ethos and curriculum. Look at their course offerings and consider those as well as whatever reasons you have for applying. Think specifically, not generally- beyond it being a well-respected university, what does Georgetown have to offer you that other well-respected universities do not? Georgetown wants to hear that you’re committed to their program specifically, so answer in specifics. Identify features of their program in particular, and be sure to answer the question of why those features draw you to Georgetown. If you have a personal anecdote about Georgetown, such as a moment on a tour, a personal connection to the campus, or admiration for a particular alumni, this essay is a good place to discuss it. If not, it’s always a good idea to use concrete specifics, such as classes and extracurriculars that appeal to you. Fold those into a discussion of Georgetown’s mission and your own career goals to paint a complete picture of why this is the right school for you. This could be you and your new classmates at Georgetown. What Does a Successful Georgetown Essay Look Like? Planning an essay can be difficult as you try to weigh what the school might want against everything you could possibly cover. Thankfully, there's at least one successful Georgetown essay out there you can read in its entirety: "Listen, girl. He's over 60 and speaks no English. There is no way we would hire him." His tone was rude, but I sadly understood why my dad wasn't hired. I faced my hopeful dad and watched his smile drop as I told him that Dave just remembered that they hired someone yesterday and that they really couldn't afford to hire anyone else. My dad was disappointed, but nonetheless he graciously shook Dave's hand and thanked him for his time.Job searching is difficult for everyone, but in a world full of Daves, it's almost impossible. Daves are people who look at my family and immediately think less of us. They think illegal, poor and uneducated. Daves never allow my dad to pass the first round of job applications. Daves watch like hawks as my brother and I enter stores. Daves inconsiderately correct my mother's grammar. Because there are Daves in the world, I have become a protector for my family. I excuse their behavior as just being a "typical American." I convince my mother that they are only staring at her lovely new purse. I convince my dad they are only shouting about store sales to us. Aside from being a protector, I am also an advocate. As an advocate, I make sure my family is never taken advantage of. I am always looking out for scams and discrepancies. I am the one asking the questions when we buy or sell a car. I make sure all details are discussed and no specifics are left unanswered. It’s not hard to see why the writer was accepted to Georgetown. This essay clearly demonstrates her experience and understanding of the world. The last paragraph is a great example of how to turn that experience into something actionable- she wants to go into public service, politics, or diplomacy because of how she’s helped her parents and the bigotry she’s witnessed as she’s done so. We know from reading exactly what the writer will bring to Georgetown: an understanding of the world and the way it’s treated her and her family. She demonstrates her understanding of diversity clearly, which answers the first prompt- it shows what makes her unique as well as what she’ll contribute. The essay shows her personal story and how that’s influenced her lifelong plans. Because the admissions office understands where she comes from and the essay finishes with where she hopes to go- as well as covering some of the obstacles she’s overcome- they have a complete picture of her as a student. One area the essay could be improved is strengthening the connection to Georgetown specifically. This essay is quite strong- she did get into Georgetown with it- but spending a little more time reflecting on how her life experience connects to Georgetown’s mission would give it a little extra oomph. As it is, this could be an application essay for pretty much any school. Drawing a clear connection from your experiences to the college you’re applying to demonstrates a stronger degree of interest, making your essay stand out. Prepare ahead of time and your Georgetown essays will be far easier. Key Points of Advice for Georgetown Essays No matter which prompts you're answering, it's a good idea to follow general advice for your Georgetown essays, too. Though the application for Georgetown is unique to the school, it still follows most of the common rules of college applications, so be sure to read up on some common tips for college applications. #1: Read Prompts Carefully Don’t just answer the surface-level question. You have quite a bit of space to answer each of these, so read each one carefully, understand the deeper questions it might be asking, such as â€Å"Why You?† and be sure to answer those as well. Brainstorming will be a huge help here, as you can get all of your ideas out and select the ones that support your point the best. #2: Connect Your Story to Your School When you're writing "Why Us?" essays, think about your story- the things that have made you who you are, your ambition, your goals- and add in how Georgetown is the next step on your journey.Think beyond that it has a good reputation or that lots of impressive people have graduated from there. Draw a clear line between you and Georgetown by tying your experience in with its curriculum and mission statement. This will demonstrate that you’re not just reusing the same essay for a bunch of schools, and that Georgetown is your real goal. #3: Edit and Revise Editing and revision are your best friends when it comes to a polished Georgetown essay. Don’t just fire off a draft and call it good. Spend some time planning, writing, editing, and revising, being sure to start early so you can let your drafts rest between readings. Spending more time will take some of the stress out of writing and let you put in more effort to get it into shape. The longer you have, the more thought you can put into it, so start early! What’s Next? Give yourself plenty of time to get your Georgetown essay done by staying on top of all the deadlines for your application. What else do you need to get into your dream school aside from stellar essays? This guide has all the requirements to get into Georgetown. Even if you're not going to Georgetown, you should understand the college application process from start to finish. This helpful guide will walk you through applying to college starting from your freshman year of high school! Want to write the perfect college application essay? Get professional help from PrepScholar. Your dedicated PrepScholar Admissions counselor will craft your perfect college essay, from the ground up. We'll learn your background and interests, brainstorm essay topics, and walk you through the essay drafting process, step-by-step. At the end, you'll have a unique essay that you'll proudly submit to your top choice colleges. Don't leave your college application to chance. Find out more about PrepScholar Admissions now:

GUIDED READING ACTIVITIES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

GUIDED READING ACTIVITIES - Essay Example They explain their stand and arguments by giving specific examples and referring to the relevant theories. In this regard, the claimed contribution to the current knowledge is the use of the dominant story in furthering ethical business conducts especially by the stakeholders of particular concerned companies. The authors of the article mainly use the dominant theory to discuss the essence of ethics in doing business in the contemporary world. They specifically state that the dominant theory is not consistent with the law in that the dominant theory puts the interests of the stakeholders first before considering the interest of the community, customers, suppliers, and the employers. In addition, the dominant theory is according to the authors resistant to change in that because of the priority given to the shareholders’ interests, the system becomes reluctant to accept change as it firmly believes in a hierarchical system of classifying various interests. Perhaps the most important feature of the dominant theory in this regard is that the dominant theory is inconsistent with the basic ethical rules. In many business environments, business ethics is a fundamental tool for ensuring that corporates operate in accordance with the international best practice. In this regard, it is appropriate to infer that the integration thesis applies to all business decisions and environments. The integration thesis states that nearly all decisions that are of business nature normally contain some element of ethics in them and the opposite is true. This means that ethical decisions also have some business implications. There is also the responsible principle that insists t hat almost everybody either want to or should take individual responsibility for the consequences of their actions. In the conclusion part, the authors offer some arguments for managing the shareholders especially if their interests seam to

Gender studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Gender studies - Essay Example ough the work of Beauvoir is influenced by Sartre, one such unique facet has keep herself isolated from the style of Sartre and that is her generosity which is the focus of Beauvoir’s ethical position. Passion and extremism have made this book the significant as well as original. (The Philosophy of Simone de Beauvoir, Gendered Phenomenology, Erotic Generosities) points out the different sources of Beauvoir’s philosophical positions. Bergoffen in the above book has analyzed two streams of thoughts i.e. two voices. One is dominant philosophical and existential while the other is muted voice which operates as the margins of Beauvoir’s primary philosophical identity. Here we are going to study the theme of sexual relationship of man and woman from different feminist’s writers’ point of view. Man and woman relationship has been the engrossing subject of study and many philosophers and critics. The aim of this topic is to discuss and compare the platonic love with the love from modern feminist point of view. In this topic we have considered the different perspectives of love from different writers and philosophers. Plato’s philosophical work called ‘Symposium’ discusses this theme through very thought provoking dialogues. It is a conversation and a type of debate which is happening between Socrates and a lady called Diotima. Here she explains the extent of love. Diotima is very philosophical and abstract in her view and she has exalted attitudes towards love. According to her love between man and woman is divine and very beautiful. ‘It is immortality in a mortal creature.’ (â€Å"Symposium† page 49) Diotima opines that the real object of sexuality is to give birth. Sexual love is the medium which Nature uses for this same purpose. T hus the purpose of love is very noble and that is the reproduction. While describing about the difference between physical beauty and intellectual beauty Diotima argues that intellectuality plays a vital role. The person

Eng project 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Eng project 2 - Essay Example In addition, this can illuminate the many ways in which writers can come to vastly different conclusions regarding the relevance of a single particular story, even when confronted with exactly the same words on paper. An examination into how two different students interpreted the symbolism of â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† will demonstrate how even very similar ideas and viewpoints can lead to greatly different applications and conclusions. The two sample essays have many similarities in the way in which they interpreted some of the key symbols of the story, primarily the meanings of the wallpaper pattern, the creeping of the woman and the peeling of the paper, but the second essay takes these themes one step further, expanding the understanding of the story into a deeper context. In the first essay, the student interprets the yellow wallpaper as a thin veil meant to trap and hide the narrator’s true personality. This is extended to the polite society in which she lives, where her husband attempts to hide her encroaching madness in a quiet country house that is â€Å"quite alone, standing well back from the road, quite three miles from the village.† The pattern in the wallpaper becomes the confining pattern of the narrator’s life as she maintains the schedule her husband has set for her despite her own objections and thoughts concerning her welfare. The pattern itself serves as the bars to the pris on she finds herself in, with a foreign pattern to them because they are not of her making. This writer sees the creeping of the woman behind the wallpaper to be the creeping of the narrator as she sneaks around the room, hiding her real thoughts and ambitions from the jailors that set this unnatural rhythm. Yet, the woman behind the wallpaper is seen also as becoming a different persona altogether, the persona of the woman’s sanity. The peeling of the wallpaper, then, becomes not only a freeing of the woman

Bullying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Bullying - Essay Example Bullying is a leading cause of serious health problems; emotional, physical and emotional problems especially to victims. This in the long run increases the chances of depression, withdrawal due to poor relationship management and anxiety related disorders. There is a strong association between bullying and suicide cases (Hertz & Wright S2). Surprisingly, it gives way to increased substance abuse which escalates the chances of an individual committing suicide. This can be as a result of post-stress and self denial after a bullying incidence Newman et al 352). Among students, bullying has a direct link to poor performance. An exact instance is a change in reading habits due to a reduction in concentration, attention, ability to remember information and creativity. The inability to maximize on these cognitive resources is because a student lives in fear and channels a lot of efforts on strategies that can offer security against further bullying (Schafer et al, 382). The best way to stop bullying is by avoiding situations that always lead to such a negative act. This a nice adaptive behavior that a victim can use in reducing bullying instances. Learning institutions, where bullying is very rampant, administrators can come up with prevention programs that involve counseling the bullies and victims, offering correctional punishments and teaching students on how to co-relate. Bullying occurs without force but considered a negative act because of the effects it brings with it. It causes health problems that may permanently cause damage to people; it can lead to change in behavior such as substance abuse and increase chances of people committing suicide. In schools, bullying can affect performance. The best way to stop it is by avoiding it and implementation of prevention

Literature Review Memo Proposal (formative assessment)

Memo Proposal (formative assessment) - Literature review Example Furthermore, through the literature review memo, the choices and applications of the words could be understood better, especially in relation to the framing of scientific research. Simultaneously, the literature review memo also assisted in understanding the pattern of writing and strategies in the selection of languages during the framing of scientific research. One of the parameters to compare the selected articles in this literature review is the writing style followed by the authors. Considering this particular parameter, Stephen Peckham and Niyi Awofeso, authors of the article â€Å"Water Fluoridation: A Critical Review of the Physiological Effects of Ingested Fluoride as a Public Health Intervention†, have applied present indefinite tense and present perfect tense throughout the article; for example ― â€Å"Fluorine is the world’s 13th most abundant element and constitutes 0.08% of the Earth crust† (Peckham and Awofeso, 2014). The authors hardly applied past tense while describing preceding occurrences. Both the authors have applied passive voice sentences in order to express their thoughts, as can be observed with reference to their statement ― â€Å"Despite this community water fluoridation is endorsed by the World Health Authority, the US Public Health Agency, and most dental and public health org anisations as a safe and effective method of reducing dental decay (i.e., caries), a major global public health problem affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults† (Peckham and Awofeso, 2014). On the other hand, Ling et al. (2013), in the article titled â€Å"Evaluation of the Toxicity of Fluorine in Antarctic Krill on Soft Tissues of Wistar Rats†, have attempted to inform audiences about the toxicity of fluorine in Antarctic krill. Considering the writing style followed by the authors in this article, it can be observed apparently that the authors have applied the present

The Orthodox Jews Total Way of Life Research Paper

The Orthodox Jews Total Way of Life - Research Paper Example Also known as erub or eiruv, an eruv is an enclosure in which Orthodox Jews can push or carry objects on the Sabbath, to escape the violation of the Jewish Law which prohibits carrying things except within the home setting.   An eruv, therefore, serves the purpose of a home, and in it, things such as house keys, nappies, prams, crutches, food and beverage, extra clothes essential medicines and handkerchiefs may be carried. Differing Interpretations of Eiruv among the Different Jewish Denominations. On the one hand, Orthodox Jews accept the use of an eiruv to serve as a house, to cushion them from contravening the Jewish Sabbath Law. Reformed Jews on the other Reformed Jews do not regard an eruv as an unnecessary mechanism which encourages separateness and works against assimilation (Diamond, 490). Taboos in Orthodox Judaism emanate from the Torah and the oral interpretation of the Torah and the codification of the Torah [the Talmud and Mishna].   These laws in the Torah became th e total way of life for Orthodox Jews. Again, the same laws became a total way of life for Orthodox Jews because they were believed to have originated from God, through Moses, as is shown in the Torah. In respect to the foregoing, all food taken by Orthodox Jews must be kosher, meaning, proper for consumption. For instance, Orthodox Jews may neither take milk and beef nor cheeseburger because of their observation to Deuteronomy 14:21 and Exodus 23:19. These taboos cover the Orthodox Jew’s total way of life and therefore govern even business dealings.  

Literature Review Memo Proposal (formative assessment)

Memo Proposal (formative assessment) - Literature review Example Furthermore, through the literature review memo, the choices and applications of the words could be understood better, especially in relation to the framing of scientific research. Simultaneously, the literature review memo also assisted in understanding the pattern of writing and strategies in the selection of languages during the framing of scientific research. One of the parameters to compare the selected articles in this literature review is the writing style followed by the authors. Considering this particular parameter, Stephen Peckham and Niyi Awofeso, authors of the article â€Å"Water Fluoridation: A Critical Review of the Physiological Effects of Ingested Fluoride as a Public Health Intervention†, have applied present indefinite tense and present perfect tense throughout the article; for example ― â€Å"Fluorine is the world’s 13th most abundant element and constitutes 0.08% of the Earth crust† (Peckham and Awofeso, 2014). The authors hardly applied past tense while describing preceding occurrences. Both the authors have applied passive voice sentences in order to express their thoughts, as can be observed with reference to their statement ― â€Å"Despite this community water fluoridation is endorsed by the World Health Authority, the US Public Health Agency, and most dental and public health org anisations as a safe and effective method of reducing dental decay (i.e., caries), a major global public health problem affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults† (Peckham and Awofeso, 2014). On the other hand, Ling et al. (2013), in the article titled â€Å"Evaluation of the Toxicity of Fluorine in Antarctic Krill on Soft Tissues of Wistar Rats†, have attempted to inform audiences about the toxicity of fluorine in Antarctic krill. Considering the writing style followed by the authors in this article, it can be observed apparently that the authors have applied the present

Research methods Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Methods - Research Paper Example Introduction Background of the Study The term retail means to break the bulk. The rise in consumer demand, consumption pattern and also the desire among the customers to get products conveniently under one roof has made retailing one of the most booming sectors in the world. The focal point of discussion is the U.K. retail market and the leader of the U.K. retail market called Tesco. U.K. retail market has been chosen because in the third largest retailer in the world and makes a contribution of 8% to the GDP and provides employment to over 400,000 people. Tesco founded by Jack Cohen in 1919, is the third largest retailer in the world and the largest one in U.K. As on 2012 the total revenue of the company was ?64.539 billion (Kotler, 2001, p. 25). Problem Definition The presence of retailers such as Asada, Morrisons, and Sainsbury’s has made the U.K. retail market very competitive. However, in order to ensure global success Tesco has to maintain competitive advantage in the co untry of origin. ... Literature Review Competitive position of accompany can be defined as the position of a company that can allow it to gain competitive advantage over the competitors. Some of the parameters based on which competitive position can be measured are market share, revenue, brand awareness, etc (Kolb, 2008, p. 92). In order to analyze the competitive position it is important to understand the internal and external environment. One of the best ways to analyze the external environment is to assess the macro environmental factors such as Political, Economic, Social and Technological factors; known as PEST. One of way of analyzing the internal environmental factors is to conduct a SWOT analysis. In case of SWOT Strengths and Weaknesses are internal, whereas Opportunities and Threats are external (Henry, 2008, p. 89; Brown, 2009, p.63). To conduct the analysis relevant data are required. Secondary data is something that has already been collected by other sources. As compared to primary data sec ondary data can be collected within lesser amount of time spending lesser amount of money. Most preferred medium of collecting secondary data today happens to be internet (Churchill, 2009, p.211). Methodology An ideal methodology provides a much required foundation to a researcher right from the starting of the choice of topic till making the final recommendations. In this case the main motivation of the choice of the topic was the contribution of Retail to service sector and the overall economy of U.K. As it can be seen that the nature of the study is exploratory in nature; hence in order to explore the topic and reach the final conclusions secondary research has been chosen so that relevant and appropriate data can be collected within the stipulated time in

Bachs Musical Style

Bachs Musical Style For many music lovers, Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 1750) is the greatest composer in the history of human civilization. People all over the world play his music and study his art. The value of his music can be expressed by Wagners famous phrase quoted in the Oxford Dictionary of Music: It is the most stupendous miracle in all music. Style is the soul of every composer. Similarly, a good grasp of the playing style of a piece of music is an important criterion to judge the success of a performance. To grasp the works style correctly requires accumulated practice and the serious study of every note and every phrase and an equally important understanding of work as a whole. The published works of Bachs are many and include most of the mature music forms of his era including orchestral and chamber music and large works for orchestra and voice. However, Bach did not write opera and this is an important point to make when studying his ‘style. He did not write opera because his employment in the ducal courts and education establishments occupied his creative time, and because he had an important role in the Luthern Church, a strict Protestant church which discouraged extravagance. The word ‘opera, even by Bachs time, had hints of ‘extravagance, mostly because of the social circus of the public who attended opera. The public was there to indulgence themselves, to dress up and to be seen. Of course, dressing up and being seen has always been a part of church going, and Bachs music always had entertainment purposes, but the main function of his music is to praise God and promote His teachings. Whether this purposes is conscious or not, Bach n aturally adopted a German Protestant Christian outlook, in his work, one which rejects all unhealthy factors, or the non-equilibrium factors which bring about unexpected enthusiasm. Bachs music is characterized by rational thinking and solemn emotion. His music is ‘behaved i.e. it is very structured and balanced. Bachs works for voice and orchestra are characterized by having strictly Christian themes. They include more than three hundred sacred cantatas and the world-famous large-scale oratorios of the St Matthews Passion and the St. Johns Passion. They were not written for the opera house but for the cathedral. Bach did write secular cantata, such as The Coffee Cantata (BWV 211), â€Å"Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht† (Be still, stop chattering), but even this lightly satirical work has a Christian instructional themes. A warning against the addiction of coffee its main theme is Honor Thy Father, one of the Ten Commandments of Moses. The narrator ‘Schlendrian sings in horror that his daughter doesnt listen to him, though he has told her one thousand times to stop drinking coffee. Together with the Protestant Ethic, three interesting hallmarks of Bachs music style are Imitation, Contrast and Improvisation. Improvisation is the opposite of Imitation. The stepping-stone from Imitation to Improvisation is Contrast. To get there we must start at the beginning. To get to the beginning we will look at Bachs work for keyboard. At the forefront of Bachs works is his music for keyboard. Much of his adult career was spent at the keyboard, in particular the crucial beginnings as the court organist and concertmaster at the ducal court in Weimar (1708- 1717) and the glorious finale in Leipzig (1723-50). Throughout his creative life he composed a large amount of keyboard music, such as â€Å"Toccata and Fugue in D minor†; â€Å"Das wohltemperierte Clavier† (The well-tempered keyboard, Prelude and Fugue; and the Goldberg Variations. Therefore to really to begin to understand Bachs musical style we need to look closely at his writing for keyboard. Here we find the beginnings of his style and also the full flowering of his genius. Although Bach originally wrote for the keyboards of the pianoforte and the cathedral organ much of Bachs music has been transcribed for the piano, and it is through the transpositions for piano that pupils in China begin their studies of Bachs style and music. Their starting point is not, of course, the mature masterpieces such as the Goldberg Variations but the beautifully direct and eloquently simple pieces he wrote for his own pupils. â€Å"Inventions and Sinfonias†, BWV 772-801, also known as the â€Å"Two and Three Part Inventions†, are a collection of thirty short keyboard pieces consisting of fifteen two-part contrapuntal pieces called ‘inventio (inventions) and fifteen three-part contrapuntal pieces called ‘ sinfonia. The two groups are both arranged in order of ascending key, each group covering the fifteen major and minor keys. They were written by Bach as technical exercises to develop his pupils ‘two-hand independenceà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ the ability to play independent parts of the music with each of their two hands. The autograph manuscript copy in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin includes Bachs own intentions under the heading ‘auffrichtig, or ‘Straightforward Instruction: â€Å"In which amateurs of the keyboard, and especially the keen ones, are shown a clear way not only (1) of learning to play cleanly in two voices, but also, after further progress, (2) of dealing correctly and satisfactorily with three obbligato parts; at the same time not only getting good inventions, but developing the same satisfactorily, and above all arriving at a cantabile [song-like] manner in playing, all the while acquiring a strong foretaste of composition.† The manuscript is dated â€Å"Anno Christi 1723† and signed â€Å"Joh. Seb. Bach: Capellmeister to his Serene Highness the Prince of Anhalt-CÃÆ' ¶then.† The important point to make here about Bachs style is that the starting point of the learning process and the creative process is ‘Imitation. This is very clearly the case when we look at the exercises themselves. The music, and the understanding of the music, evolves out of repetition and minor variations of the form. This ‘imitation is a part of the Protestant Aesthetic. It is the Protestant approach of ‘Say as we say and do as we do. But we note too that the function of Bachs ‘imitation is not ‘blind imitation it is deliberately intended to lead the player to ‘independence. Only when the pupil has mastered ‘imitation can he possibly proceed to the next level of musical understanding, which is ‘Contrast. In Bachs music contrast is shown in the whole and in the details. A good representative example is the 15 18 subsection of the first â€Å"two-part invention†, the contrast of strong and weak being a perfect match. Lively counterpoint voices are formed in contrast to fill the music with energy. The main theme is in coherent semiquaver notes; the counterpoint voice part is lively quaver notes. Different motive materials have different contrast,even in the same theme. such as 1 2 subsection in the eighth. This theme includes two motives, motive A is quaver note is a string of eight sub-note, whose staccatos are moving upward; motive B is a string of semiquaver note, whose staccatos are moving down. A motive is more active, B motives is more rounded, they have a sharp contrast. Evolving out of ‘contrast is ‘Polyphony, a texture containing two or more independent melodic voices. Polyphony has been described as Bachs crowning achievement (Bach Inventions, Chen Ming-chi series, World Publishing Company). Unlike melody, the polyphony of voices all maintain their independence. When more voices are added, and interwoven into the texture, in the same free and independent manner, the wealth of musical expression increases still further. Therefore, polyphony is a three-dimensional approach. It has a multi-faceted, multi-line, the multiplicity of complex thinking (quoted from the foreword in Piano Recital way, Zhao Xiaosheng, Hunan Education Press, 1981). Through polyphony Bach teaches us that harmony is not simply the accompaniment of a simple melody but a means to increase the wealth of our musical language. This union of melodies gives rise to new combinations of tones and consequently an increase in the variety of musical expressions. To the armoury of musical expression and ornamentations, such as trill, mordent, turn, appoggiatura, acciaccatura, improvisational ornamentality within a fixed space is an essential skill for every musician. Bach includes Improvisation as a part of Ornamentation. Improvisation is the opposite of ‘Imitation. After Beethoven, the detail of music scores became more and more specific and standard, and the space for musicians to play improvisational music is getting smaller and smaller. However, in Bachs works, this skill is indispensable. Bach did not often indicate the patterns of performing. An exception is the Clavier-BÃÆ' ¼chlein vor Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, written by Johann Sebastian Bach for the keyboard instruction of his eldest son, which gives Explanation of various signs, showing how to play certain ornaments correctly† but this is a rare exception. In Bachs time, the execution of ornaments often varied from country to country and from composer to composer. We l earn from the repeatedly revised manuscripts of the Inventions and Sinfonias that improvised ornamentation was encouraged, with the student expected to extend the logic through the entire piece. Thus, we come full circle. â€Å"The most stupendous miracle† of Bachs musical style, is that it teaches us that Imitation and Logic are the true pathways to Independence and Freedom.